Estado sólido. 1. Enlaces en Sólidos: Iónicos, covalentes, metálicos. 2. Cristales moleculares. 3. Teoría cuántica de los metales. 4. Teoría de bandas de los sólidos. 5. Semiconductores: el diodo o unión p-n, transistor de unión, transistor con efecto de campo. 6. Circuitos integrados. 7. Superconductividad.
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2021-04-17
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Universidad Nacional de Educación Enrique Guzmán y Valle
Abstract
El objetivo de este trabajo de investigación fue el estudio del Estado Sólido de la materia es profundo y moderno, comprende los
estudios, investigaciones de la Física Moderna, realizados en los siglos XX y XXI
inclusive, sus aplicaciones vienen sorprendiendo a la humanidad, cada capítulo de su
estudio es una nueva línea de estudio.
• El estudio del Estado Sólido comprende el comportamiento físico químico, de las
sustancias (metales, aisladores, semiconductores), a un nivel de moléculas, átomos y
núcleo atómico, y sus reacciones, sobre todo cuando la temperatura es cercana a 0K.
• El fundamento y estudio del Estado Sólido se hace a un nivel cuántico de la materia,
que nos indica que las partículas se encuentran ubicadas en niveles de energía o en
bandas energéticas, que para cambiar de posición hay que absorber fotones de energía,
con un valor cuantificado, todo ello propuesto por grandes científicos, a inicios del siglo
XX, como Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Neil Bohr, Erwin Schrödinger, etc.
• En este estudio se han analizado cómo están unidos los átomos para formar moléculas,
lo hacen por medio de ligaduras, que corresponden al comportamiento de la materia
como conductores (pierden con facilidad sus electrones de valencia) los malos
conductores de electricidad (tienen la tendencia a ganar electrones), el compartir los
electrones lo hacen por acción iónica o en forma covalente.
• El estudio del Estado Sólido de la materia nos informa que muchos metales tienen un
comportamiento cristalino, es decir que sus átomos se disponen en estructuras
geométricas espaciales regulares, por ello tienen propiedades físico químico
particulares, el de ser buenos y malos conductores de corriente, estas características
varían dependiendo de la temperatura.
• En general, en la materia unos ceden y otros ganan electrones de acuerdo a su
naturaleza, el movimiento de esos electrones es aleatorio, caótico. Estos electrones
corresponden al nivel de valencia, de acuerdo con su afinidad electrónica, sus niveles de
energía están muy juntos, dando origen a bandas energéticas denominadas banda de
valencia, banda de conducción, huecos y cuyas separaciones van definiendo el carácter
del material (conductores, aisladores, semiconductores).
• Cuando los semiconductores están dopados (PN, NPN, PNP), reaccionan en forma
particular, porque trabajan como amplificadores de corriente, de potencia, rectificadores
de corriente. Se encuentran en todos los instrumentos modernos como celulares,
ordenadores, aviones, trenes, satélites, rayos láser, etc., aprovechando sus pequeños
tamaños, un gasto mínimo de energía, de costos bajos, trabajan muy bien a temperatura
ambiente.
• Otra línea de estudio del Estado Sólido es la superconductividad, que se presenta
cuando la temperatura baja hasta 0 k. En este punto el material pierde las propiedades
de ser Resistencia Eléctrica, por ello no hay pérdida de energía en sus aplicaciones. A
partir del año 1950 hay toda una carrera por obtener una resistencia cero a mayores
temperatura, para ello ya se han encontrado aleaciones, óxidos que trabajan a mayores
temperaturas con 40 K, 75 K, 125 K, tenemos vehículos que están aprovechando esta
condición física, como es el tren bala, el más rápido del mundo.
The objective of this research work was the study of the Solid State of matter, it is deep and modern, it includes the studies, investigations of Modern Physics, carried out in the 20th and 21st centuries inclusive, its applications have been surprising humanity, each chapter of its study is a new line of study. • The study of the Solid State includes the chemical physical behavior of the substances (metals, insulators, semiconductors), at a level of molecules, atoms and atomic nucleus, and its reactions, especially when the temperature is close to 0K. • The foundation and study of the Solid State is done at a quantum level of matter, which tells us that the particles are located in energy levels or in energy bands, that to change position it is necessary to absorb photons of energy, with a quantified value, all proposed by great scientists, at the beginning of the century XX, such as Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Neil Bohr, Erwin Schrödinger, etc. • In this study we have analyzed how atoms are united to form molecules, they do it by means of ligatures, which correspond to the behavior of matter as conductors (they easily lose their valence electrons) the bad conductors of electricity (they have a tendency to gain electrons), sharing Electrons do so by ionic or covalent action. • The study of the Solid State of matter informs us that many metals have a crystalline behavior, that is to say that its atoms are arranged in structures regular spatial geometry, therefore they have physical chemical properties particular, that of being good and bad conductors of current, these characteristics vary depending on temperature. • In general, in matter some give up and others gain electrons according to their nature, the movement of these electrons is random, chaotic. these electrons correspond to the valence level, according to their electronic affinity, their levels of energy are very close together, giving rise to energy bands called energy bands. valence, conduction band, gaps and whose separations define the character of the material (conductors, insulators, semiconductors). • When semiconductors are doped (PN, NPN, PNP), they react as particular, because they work as current amplifiers, power amplifiers, rectifiers of current They are found in all modern instruments such as cell phones, computers, airplanes, trains, satellites, lasers, etc., taking advantage of their small sizes, minimal energy expenditure, low cost, work very well at room temperature ambient. • Another line of study of the Solid State is superconductivity, which is presented when the temperature drops to 0 K. At this point the material loses the properties of being Electrical Resistance, therefore there is no loss of energy in its applications. A From the year 1950 there is a whole race to obtain a zero resistance to greater temperature, for which alloys have already been found, oxides that work at higher temperatures with 40 K, 75 K, 125 K, we have vehicles that are taking advantage of this physical condition, such as the bullet train, the fastest in the world.
The objective of this research work was the study of the Solid State of matter, it is deep and modern, it includes the studies, investigations of Modern Physics, carried out in the 20th and 21st centuries inclusive, its applications have been surprising humanity, each chapter of its study is a new line of study. • The study of the Solid State includes the chemical physical behavior of the substances (metals, insulators, semiconductors), at a level of molecules, atoms and atomic nucleus, and its reactions, especially when the temperature is close to 0K. • The foundation and study of the Solid State is done at a quantum level of matter, which tells us that the particles are located in energy levels or in energy bands, that to change position it is necessary to absorb photons of energy, with a quantified value, all proposed by great scientists, at the beginning of the century XX, such as Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Neil Bohr, Erwin Schrödinger, etc. • In this study we have analyzed how atoms are united to form molecules, they do it by means of ligatures, which correspond to the behavior of matter as conductors (they easily lose their valence electrons) the bad conductors of electricity (they have a tendency to gain electrons), sharing Electrons do so by ionic or covalent action. • The study of the Solid State of matter informs us that many metals have a crystalline behavior, that is to say that its atoms are arranged in structures regular spatial geometry, therefore they have physical chemical properties particular, that of being good and bad conductors of current, these characteristics vary depending on temperature. • In general, in matter some give up and others gain electrons according to their nature, the movement of these electrons is random, chaotic. these electrons correspond to the valence level, according to their electronic affinity, their levels of energy are very close together, giving rise to energy bands called energy bands. valence, conduction band, gaps and whose separations define the character of the material (conductors, insulators, semiconductors). • When semiconductors are doped (PN, NPN, PNP), they react as particular, because they work as current amplifiers, power amplifiers, rectifiers of current They are found in all modern instruments such as cell phones, computers, airplanes, trains, satellites, lasers, etc., taking advantage of their small sizes, minimal energy expenditure, low cost, work very well at room temperature ambient. • Another line of study of the Solid State is superconductivity, which is presented when the temperature drops to 0 K. At this point the material loses the properties of being Electrical Resistance, therefore there is no loss of energy in its applications. A From the year 1950 there is a whole race to obtain a zero resistance to greater temperature, for which alloys have already been found, oxides that work at higher temperatures with 40 K, 75 K, 125 K, we have vehicles that are taking advantage of this physical condition, such as the bullet train, the fastest in the world.
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Rojas Escobar, E. G. (2021). Estado sólido. 1. Enlaces en Sólidos: Iónicos, covalentes, metálicos. 2. Cristales moleculares. 3. Teoría cuántica de los metales. 4. Teoría de bandas de los sólidos. 5. Semiconductores: el diodo o unión p-n, transistor de unión, transistor con efecto de campo. 6. Circuitos integrados. 7. Superconductividad (Monografía de pregrado). Universidad Nacional de Educación Enrique Guzmán y Valle, Lima, Perú.